Theories of the Will in the History of Philosophy

PREFACE

In the following chapters will be found a concise account of the development of the theory of the will, from the earliest days of Greek thought down to about the middle of the present century. It is not sufficiently comprehensive to be called a history, for it includes only the theories of the more important philosophers, and does not by any means exhaust the literature of the subject. In addition to contributing something to the history of philosophy, it has been my purpose to introduce in this way a constructive explanation of voluntary action. After some years of study in the preparation of such a constructive theory, I am confirmed in the opinion that a historical treatment is indispensable to a proper presentation of the subject; and this essay is the first of a series. The account closes with the theory of Lotze, chiefly as this is contained in his earlier treatise, Medicinische Psy-chologie. This termination is not altogether arbitrary. During the last quarter of a century, as all readers of philosophy are aware, the methods of



psychology have been greatly modified, if not revolutionized. It is a change which has been brought about by several causes. Without doubt, the most efficient of these has been the rise and increasing importance of the theory of natural evolution, as presented by Darwin, and as adopted or modified by his successors. Whether we admit the principle, wholly, or in part, or not at all, it will hardly be denied that the effect of the emphasis laid upon evolution has been to regard no psychical states as self-explanatory, but rather as a result of antecedent conditions, possibly as a compound of simpler elements. This has been manifested conservatively in the tendency to seek the germs of psychical states in the adult, in the conscious life of the infant; it has been manifested more radically in the attempts made to find at least analogies, if not connecting links, between the psychoses observed indirectly in the lower animals and those observed directly in man. In the same way, the tendency to seek in the lower species initial stages in that process of which man's body is the present result, has led to the special study of the human brain from the point of view of comparative anatomy and animal physiology. The union of such methods with older methods which had led to the localization of mental functions in the organs of





the central nervous system, while beset by many difficulties, is likely to produce important results. It is not unreasonable to expect that the genesis of conscious volition may be explained not only by the more rudimentary processes in the child, but also by the phenomena presented in the lower animals.

In this account of the earlier theories, I have tried to avoid intruding my own opinions as much as possible. But it may appear that speculation and the introspective method of studying the will have almost reached their limits. The state of contemporary psychology makes this equally apparent. I have ventured to express an individual judgment only on matters of doubtful interpretation, and it is hoped that where the interpretations of higher authorities are questioned, there is justification for at least a difference of opinion.

In some cases the chronological order has been disregarded, in order to exhibit more clearly the logical relations of certain doctrines to each other. The doctrines of the will in Christian Theology have been considered in a separate chapter, although they form a part of the development of systematic thought. I have used the term will with and without the definite article; and neither use is to be understood as implying or justifying





any particular theory of faculties. I make no apology for the extensive quotations from certain authors, without translating them into English. Especially in the case of the German writers, the advantage of quoting the original is self-evident.

A. A.